J.G. Ballard's World Versus U.S. – Rafe McGregor

The Worlds of J.G. Ballard

J(ames) G(raham) Ballard (1930-2009) was an English author of avant-garde fiction who published nineteen novels and novellas and one hundred short stories, many of which were controversial, prescient, or both. Very broadly, his career can be divided into two stages, science fiction and literature. The first began with the publication of ‘Escapement’ in New Worlds in 1956 and the second with the publication of Empire of the Sun, his eleventh novel, in 1984. Along with Michael Moorcock and Brian Aldiss (1925-2017), Ballard was one of the founders of the New Wave of science fiction, which originated in New Worlds magazine in the mid-nineteen-sixties and reconstituted the genre as an extension of literary modernism focused on the psychological rather than physical impact of technology. Ballard’s science fiction can itself be divided into two stages. His first four novels (or novellas, depending on one’s preferred definition) pioneered Anglophone climate fiction. The Wind from Nowhere (1962), The Drowned World (1962), The Drought (1964), and The Crystal World (1966) constitute an elemental quartet in which civilisation is threatened or destroyed by air, water, fire, and earth respectively. Ballard’s next six novels were much more experimental, putting his ideas about the relationship between the content of science fiction and formal innovation into practice, and include The Atrocity Exhibition (1970) and Crash (1973). The critical and commercial success of Empire of the Sun elevated Ballard to the literary canon and it was released as a Hollywood film directed by Steven Spielberg in 1987. Like his science fiction, Ballard’s literature can also be divided into two stages, with Cocaine Nights (1996) and his last three novels usually referred to as satire.

The last book Ballard published before his death from prostate cancer was Miracles of Life: Shanghai to Shepperton (2008), an autobiography written after his terminal diagnosis. It’s not very often that anyone, let alone a great novelist, has the opportunity to write an autobiography that will include (almost) their entire life story, but I found it for the most part disappointing. Ballard always valued his privacy and the autobiography is strangely unenlightening. The Illuminated Man: Life, Death and the Worlds of J.G. Ballard (2026), a biography that was begun by Christopher Priest (1943-2024) and completed by his wife, Nina Allan, when he died of prostate cancer in 2024, is much more revealing. In his review of Priest and Allan’s book in The Guardian, Adam Sisman concurs with my criticism of Miracles of Life by calling it ‘curiously flat’. There are certainly no insights into Ballard’s creative process or literary practice, which was what I had most hoped to find. When I discovered that his archive had been acquired by the British Library in 2010 and was now available to the public, I thought I’d try there instead, but Ballard’s reticence extended to the private sphere and his habit was apparently to destroy his notes for his fiction as soon as it was published. While the archive contains multiple drafts of multiple novels, including those of three of his four early climate fictions, much of both his process and practice remains opaque.

The J.G. Ballard Papers

In the ‘Works’ section of the archive only three of the one hundred and sixty-two files are described as projects for a new novel or working notes. The first of these is a set of four text collages that were published in New Worlds in 1978, the second a set of five spiral-bound notepads (one of which has only two pages of notes) that were probably used from 2005 to 2008, and the third five typed A4 pages, also likely dated 2005 to 2008. One of the pages, Notepad A, most of Notepad B, and a few pages each in Notepads C and D are notes for a novel that was never written, provisionally titled An Immodest Proposal or How the World Declared War on America and abbreviated as ‘VUS’ ([World] versus US). Allan recounts her visit to the archive in 2024 and discusses these notes and other materials in The Illuminated Man and it was pure chance that I visited less than a month after reading it. Something that comes across very strongly in the biography and was very useful in providing a context for the notes was the extent to which Ballard was affected by the September 11 attacks and what is now known as GWOT, the Global War on Terror.

Ballard’s notes for VUS include everything one might expect to find, from the premise at its most basic to alternative ideas for plot and character, considerations of form and content, and reflections on whether and how he could meet its particular challenges. The proposed narrative is typical of Ballard in being located in an unspecified but imminent future, taking the present rather than the future as its subject, and providing commentary on current social mores and norms. The present with which he is concerned is the increase of the US’ military footprint in response to 9/11, specifically the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003. Ballard does not connect these to either Panama in 1989, Grenada in 1983, or the US’ military deployments during the Cold War and seems to have regarded GWOT as an unprecedented phenomenon. He is also well aware of the symbolic significance of 9/11 and the care with which both the targets and the date of the four coordinated attacks were planned. I’ll begin my discussion of the novel by setting out the fictional sequence of events on which the narrative would be based. Unlike more precise questions of form and content, on which Ballard is often undecided, the sequence is fairly comprehensive and consistent.

VUS

The setting of VUS is a world in which the US has established an empire reminiscent of the European colonies of an earlier age. America controls all of the Middle East, including Israel, and most of the world’s oil supply. Many countries across the globe are either occupied by the US, have puppet regimes, or are sympathetic to the US. In those countries that are occupied or have puppet regimes, ‘American values are relentless enforced.’ The same values are relentlessly promoted in the countries with sympathetic governments, such as the UK and Germany. The US exerts a global hegemony by the combination of military threat and economic pressure and insists on preferential trade agreements for all of its goods, including oil. France is one of the few countries to remain openly anti-American and tries to import oil from an alternative supplier (Venezuela is mentioned at least twice). In response, the US initiates a naval blockade, which causes skirmishes at sea and anti-American civil unrest globally. There is a naval battle between the US and France, which the US wins, and the United Nations Security Council authorises military action if the US fails to abandon both its preferential trade agreements and foreign military bases. Predictably, the US refuses and the world declares war on the US, led by either the rest of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation nations or by a combined NATO-Russia alliance.

The war that follows has three stages. In the first, which is a conventional, high-intensity conflict, the US achieves a rapid victory over NATO, using weapons of mass destruction to destroy military and civilian targets and occupying all the nations who have taken up arms against it. US global hegemony is transformed into a global empire. No Pax Americana materialises, however, as multiple insurgencies begin, starting in Iraq, Syria, and Saudi Arabia and then spreading to other countries. This second, unconventional, stage culminates in a series of coordinated attacks aimed at destroying nine icons within the US homeland. The US responds in a similar manner to its response to the declaration of war, causing mass casualties among insurgents and civilians at home and abroad. In the homeland, Black and Muslim communities are targeted, which initiates the third and final stage. Black, Muslim, and other soldiers in the US Army mutiny, violence in the homeland spirals, and America descends into a second civil war. Ballard doesn’t describe the impact of this civil war on the empire, but the implication is that it crumbles and that the world is consequently victorious against the US.

The subject of the novel at its most basic is simply ‘US imperialism’, but Ballard’s concern extended beyond military expansion to America’s dominance of global popular culture, from Hollywood to McDonald’s to Elvis and so much else. He was especially interested in the way in which this cultural hegemony was causing people to see themselves through an American lens and how this succeeded in turning other nations into ‘subservient colonies’ (without the need for puppet regimes or invasion). Ballard has various ideas about how to turn this subject into a theme, the most consistent of which is that the US would be ‘treated as Nazi Germany in 1939-45’ with no characters in the novel permitted to adopt a neutral stance. He was more certain about the characters that would drive the narrative. His initial idea was to use three ‘principle [sic]’ characters and three ‘secondary’ characters. He later refers to these six as an ‘inner core’. The characters would all be of different nationalities and the protagonist, who would be British, and three others would be men. The protagonist is an English university lecturer who teaches American Studies at a university in the Middle East and has an American wife (which is significant because it will allow him to gain entry to the homeland later on). A second principal character, also a man, would be French. The nationalities of the others would be drawn from Japan, Russia, Australia, Germany, an unspecified Muslim country, and possibly Israel. Ballard then thought that one of the women should also be British, which may have been why he expanded his central characters to seven, four men and three women. The characters would either be in professions that would bring them into direct contact with the war, such as the military, media, or medicine, or foreign workers, such as those in oil, education, or diplomacy.

Ballard started to delineate the French protagonist, couldn’t think of anything interesting, and wrote: ‘All need to be thoughtful + of heroic potential.’ He was also convinced that all ‘should have suffrered [sic] in some way from the US — —’ and these two ideas taken together suggest that a major part of the narrative would be the planning, recruitment, and execution of the coordinated attacks on American icons, some or all of which would be suicidal. He wanted to break the stereotype for people that were prepared to sacrifice themselves in this way and noted that the insurgents should be ‘educated, intellectual, even unwilling.’ Whether or not the insurgency would be led by a Muslim cadre was unclear, although his sequence of events identifies it as beginning in Middle Eastern nations. Ballard made several lists of the insurgent targets, which included a wide range from the Empire State Building to the Capitol to Las Vegas and Disneyland. Each of these would be attacked or destroyed using a different tactic, although his list of options for these only ran to eight. At one point, he refers to these as ‘psycho-targets’, drawing attention to their symbolic significance to the US and to the psychological impact of their destruction. The novel would open outside the US embassy in Grosvenor Square in London during the heightened tensions of the naval blockade. After a protest turns violent, US troops open fire on the crowd, who scatter and destroy a nearby McDonald’s in retaliation. The event would either be described in the form of a news report (assuming Ballard’s original idea for his British protagonist) or in the first person by his (alternative) British protagonist. Ballard did not state when the novel would conclude and the options appear to be either the mutiny, the civil war, or the dissolution of the US empire.

Ballard seems to have had much less of a vision as to how he would tell the story of VUS than what the story was. He planned to switch point of view among his principal characters and mix these different points of view with reportage from different media channels. He was not, however, sure whether the novel would be narrated in the first person, by the different principal (or principal and secondary) characters, and whether these narrations would be presented as individual testimonies, oral histories, or diary entries. He also toyed with the idea of opening with an academic-style introduction to the collected testimonies and reports, rather than in medias res. Beyond that, he had very little to say about specific aspects of framework, function, structure, or symbolism. Notwithstanding, his reflections on the genre of the novel are fascinating: ‘Very important Must not allow this to become s-f. That would lower its credibility & impact.’ He was similarly worried that the novel doesn’t become ‘a familiar kind of s-f story.’ Ballard’s approach to science fiction was, as already mentioned, to prioritise the present over the future for the purpose of social commentary, which he often achieved by exploring the impact of either the broader public and political world or the immediate physical environment in which each person lives on their inner, psychological world. These New Wave commitments are completely compatible with what he was trying to achieve with and in VUS so it is curious that he was so determined to avoid the novel ‘becoming’ a work of science fiction. I wonder if the clue to this apparent anomaly isn’t the dating of the notebooks, some thirty years after the decline of the New Wave. What he probably means by ‘becoming’ is ‘being labelled/sold as’ science fiction, which had become a genre very much dominated by series and franchises by the middle of the first decade of the twenty-first century. I think that what he didn’t want was VUS being sold and read as an alternative history or a dystopian or apocalyptic narrative and I’ll return to the question of genre in my conclusion.

The Illuminated Man

Ballard was both confident that his premise was strong and worried about his ability to do it justice. I find this particularly interesting coming from someone who practically invented climate fiction, had established himself as one of Britain’s greatest living authors, and already published eighteen novels and novellas. Although his belief in his ability to develop the premise into a rich and rewarding theme appeared to grow as he built up his body of notes, his modesty and diffidence are evident throughout. For example, he writes: ‘Need to add a specific spin of some kind?’; ‘Need a deeper dimension!’; ‘too depressing & reminiscent of 1984?’. More specifically, he was concerned that the novel would be too long (presumably because of its temporal and spatial scope) and with his competence in writing first person narratives from the point of view of characters from cultures distinct from his own, such as the proposed Middle Eastern, Japanese, and Russian principal or secondary characters. Both of these problems were related to the question of how to present a ‘global sense of the battle against the US?’ Ballard was also concerned about the credibly of what he called ‘The fight back’, i.e. the success of the insurgency: ‘But is it all credible if its [sic] realistically portrayed?’ I ruminated on this myself, the dichotomy between the ease with which the US wins a conventional war against the rest of the world and the speed with which the insurgency leads to the dissolution of the US empire. But I also have no doubt that Ballard would have solved this literary problem as skilfully as he had solved others in his previous novels, novellas, and short stories. He makes a quick reference to a potential solution when he writes: ‘Perhaps visualise it as a film script.’ The process of both writing the notes down and returning to read them later seem to have helped because although there is no way to be certain of the chronological order of either the notepads or notes within them, there is definitely a sense of progress, of the crystallisation of a constellation of ideas as a premise and a sequence of events become a theme and a narrative.

It’s impossible to say know whether Ballard would have proceeded with the project had he not been diagnosed with terminal cancer, but if I had to guess one way or the other I’d say yes, given the escalation of GWOT from 2005 to 2009 and beyond. VUS would definitely have been one of his most controversial novels, perhaps even more so than The Atrocity Exhibition and Crash, and I imagine he would have been accused of both glorifying 9/11 and promoting political violence. I am fairly certain that VUS would have been banned in many US states. Assuming it had been released early in the second decade of the twenty-first century, when Big Tech was achieving its own hegemony, I wonder if the publishers would have actively courted controversy to increase sales or insisted that the novel stay on the science fiction shelf. Like The Drowned World, The Drought, and many of Ballard’s other long and short stories, there is also a sense in which VUS is prescient. Mark Blacklock beat me to that point in his essay in The New Statesman, which refers to the regime change in Venezuela in January 2026 and what is currently being called the 2026 Iran war, although Ballard did not anticipate how divided the (rest of the) ‘world’ would be in the era of VUS. What I can perhaps add to Blacklock and where Ballard and I would disagree, is that this military muscle-flexing is nothing new, just part of an imperial imperative that stretches back to at least the US invasion of Grenada. That was in 1983, the year before Ballard was catapulted into the limelight with Empire of the Sun, a novel about a different empire. As the sun sets on one, it rises on another…

Notes on Ballard's Notes from Nowhere – Rafe McGregor

J(ames) G(raham) Ballard (1930-2009) was an English author of avant-garde fiction who published nineteen novels and novellas and one hundred short stories, many of which were controversial, prescient, or both. He started his career as a science fiction writer in 1956, was instrumental in the transformation of the genre, and was admitted to the literary canon after the publication of Empire of the Sun (1984), a critically and commercially successful fictionalisation of his childhood experiences in a Japanese internment camp. His first novella, The Wind from Nowhere (1962), was part of a quartet that saw civilisation threatened or destroyed by air, water, fire, and earth and inaugurated Anglophone climate fiction. Along with Michael Moorcock and Brian Aldiss, Ballard was one of the founders of the New Wave of science fiction, which originated in the mid-nineteen-sixties and reconstituted the genre as an extension of literary modernism that was focused on the psychological rather than physical impact of technology. Ballard typically locates his narratives in the present rather than the future, explores the impact of the outer world on the inner, and provides subtle but startling commentary on social mores and norms. Although it spread across the Atlantic, the New Wave was UK-based and primarily driven by the combination of Moorcock’s editing and Ballard’s writing in New Worlds, which began as a fanzine in 1946, was taken over by Moorcock in 1964, became an anthology series in 1971, reverted to a fanzine in 1978, reverted to an anthology series in 1991, and was most recently published by PS in 2021.

The October 1966 issue of the magazine includes a short article from Ballard, ‘Notes From Nowhere: Comments on Work in Progress’, a numbered list of twenty-four notes ranging from a few words to a few sentences each. Moorcock introduced them as follows: ‘Reader interest in J.G. Ballard’s work has been high. We invited Mr Ballard to produce these notes explaining some of his current ideas.’ The level of explanation is, as one might expect from Ballard, limited, but other authors and anyone who is passionate about the creative process or science fiction as a genre is likely to find them as interesting as I did. I was lucky enough to read them in their original form, thanks to Dr Tom Dillon at the University of Liverpool’s Science Fiction Hub, which is the only dedicated science fiction archive in the UK, Europe’s largest catalogued collection of science fiction, and boasts a complete run of Theaker’s Quarterly Fiction courtesy of an anonymous donor. Tom is also the author of a cultural history of New Worlds and has an enviably rich knowledge of magazines, fanzines, and speculative fiction more broadly.

I’m not going to reproduce Ballard’s full list, which you can find on a Canadian archive of his work here, or comment on each point he makes (or sometimes fails to make), but offer five notes of my own instead. His first and longest (along with #16) is about the form of science fiction. Ballard introduces the genre with a delineation of its concern with ‘the immediate present in terms of the future rather than the past’ and claims that because of this thematic content, the standard narrative form of beginning and end, cause and effect, and exposition and resolution is inappropriate. Science fiction should be an arena for formal innovation and he comments on his attempts to play with sequentiality in The Drowned World (1962), The Drought (1964), and The Crystal World (1966), apparently ambivalent about the extent to which he succeeded in replacing temporality with spatiality in each case. This formal experimentation would come to fruition with and in The Atrocity Exhibition (1970), which included the contentious short story, ‘Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan’ (1968).

The tenth note is something of a counterpart to the first, expanding his description of science fiction’s thematic content. Ballard identifies three ‘planes’: the broader public or political world, the immediate physical environment in which each person lives their life, and the inner, psychological world of each person as they live that life. He suggests that these three coordinates provide a starting point for the clarification of contemporary reality and given what he also writes about neurology, I suspect he is referring to clarification in terms of both thought and attempts to communicate thought to others through description or depiction. In combination, notes nine and fourteen establish a close but vague relation between fiction or narrative on the one hand and neurology and what is now called neuroscience on the other. I found this fascinating due to the prioritisation of narrative as a way of thinking over narrative as a mode of communication in recent research. Philosophers, literary theorists, and cognitive scientists such as Peter Goldie, Jonathan Gottschall, and Fritz Breithaupt seem to be showing that the behavioural sciences’ lack of success in evaluating the insights of literary studies is a failure of the former rather than the latter, which is surprisingly compatible with direct scrutiny of the brain’s neural networks.

Notes twenty to twenty-three are all about the failure of science fiction authors to shed light on the concept of outer space. At first glance, this may seem arrogant or flippant, but Ballard is referring to the kind of illumination he described in #10, writing about outer space in a meaningful manner, i.e. one in which the political, physical, and psychological intersect. He mentions a current work in progress about a ‘disaster in space’, which appears to be a reference to ‘The Death Module’, published in New Worlds in July 1967. The eighteenth note is a brief and obscure farewell to The Crystal World, which is probably my favourite Ballard novel and which I used as evidence for including him as a significant contributor to the tradition of weird fiction. The novel (or novella, depending on your preferred definition) was published five months before the publication of his notes, which implies that the notes themselves were submitted to Moorcock several months in advance. In summary, Ballard’s list is an excellent place to begin with his oeuvre and I’m very grateful to have had them drawn to my attention and to have been able to see them in their original form.

The Second Sleep by Robert Harris | review by Rafe McGregor

The Second Sleep by Robert Harris

Hutchinson, hardback, £20.09, September 2019, ISBN 9781786331373

Robert Harris is an English novelist best known for his historical fiction, much of which has been adapted for the big screen. He began his writing career as a highly successful journalist and published several nonfiction books, including  Selling Hitler: The Story of the Hitler Diaries (1986), which is interesting not just for the hoax itself, but the role played by Rupert Murdoch, who was a powerful and sinister force even then, in the early nineteen eighties. Harris’ breakout novel was also his first, Fatherland (1992), published off the back of Selling Hitler, and he has authored seventeen to date, five of which are about the Roman Empire and four of which are about the Second World War. As I mentioned in my review of Prime Video’s The Man in the High Castle (2015–2019), Fatherland is actually alternative history rather than history and there is a strong speculative element running through Harris’ oeuvre.

Archangel (1998) and The Ghost (2007) are also alternative histories and the latter foregrounds a technique Harris has perfected and for which he really should be better known, the twist in the tail of the tale. His trademark twists are not only convincing, but retrospectively imbue his narratives with fresh meaning (or, perhaps more accurately, reveal a hidden meaning that was there all along). Conclave (2016) is another example of the master at work, with a revelation so powerful that it switches the novel from a contemporary thriller to an(other) alternative history. The Fear Index (2011) combines alternative history (in this case, the Flash Crash of 6 May 2010) with both science fiction and horror and I’d classify it as science fiction in consequence of the role of AI (though, as far as I can remember, Harris does not use the term). And then there is The Second Sleep, which seems to be a more straightforward instantiation of science fiction.

The novel takes its name from the concept of biphasic, diphasic, or segmented sleep, what we would now think of as getting up in the middle of the night for one to two hours before going back to sleep. There is significant evidence for this practice in pre-Industrial Europe, when people typically went to sleep shortly after dusk and rose with the dawn. Activities in the middle, which was sometimes called ‘the watch’, typically included one or more of: prayer, reading, chores, sex, or visits to neighbours. The second sleep is thus, literally, the second round of sleep between dusk and dawn, following the hour or two of pottering around. There is less evidence that this practice continued into the nineteenth century, which makes sense given that it seems tied to natural patterns and rhythms, and the closest one gets to it now is the Southern European siesta, where there might be an hour’s nap during the day and then less sleep at night. The Second Sleep opens in England in 1468 and the first thing anyone with an interest in history will notice is that the content is filled with anachronisms and inaccuracies. (I was lucky in that, very unusually, I started the book without knowing anything at all about it, other than the authorship, and dived straight in without reading the blurb.) How, one wonders, is this possible in the work of such a critically acclaimed historical novelist?

Given my acquaintance with Harris’ work, I suspected the apparent errors were clues to a mystery and the suspicion was quickly confirmed when an Apple logo turns up after a few chapters. The 1468 is not Gregorian, but an alternative calendar that is being used in a post-apocalyptic England, which has reverted to a cultural and technological state that mixes the Medieval with the Romantic. The protagonist, Father Christopher Fairfax, and his supporting cast in Addicott St George are in fact living in humanity’s second sleep, a second Dark Age that followed a catastrophic collapse of civilisation as we know it in 2025. Let me get my criticisms out of the way first. The story has a slow pace and rather rambling plot, which is loosely underpinned by a series of related mysteries: the mystery of 1468, the mystery of Fairfax’s predecessor’s sudden death, the mystery of the apocalypse itself (discussion of which is punishable by a brutal and backward legal system), and the mystery of what happened in between the apocalypse and the narrative present. In contrast to what I’ve just written about Harris’ mastery of the twist in the tail, the resolution is also underwhelming, reminiscent of both Fatherland and Enigma (1995) albeit lacking their substance.

Where Harris shines, more so than in, for example, The Fear Index, is in his sketch of why civilisation collapsed and the inevitability of certain consequences of that collapse. The former is very much related to one of my own interests, the almost complete change to everyday life in the UK (and elsewhere) from 1995, when most people had no access to the internet, to 2015, when most of us spent nearly three and a half hours of each day glued to our phones, let alone on the internet. Smartphone enabled social media transformed almost everything we do and completed that transformation in less than twenty years – which is too much too soon, even if everything about the technology is beneficial (which it clearly isn’t). Harris is particularly concerned with the deeply problematic combination of the exponentially enhanced complexity of twenty-first century everydayness with the inherent vulnerability of coupled systems that rely on the coordination of a multiplicity of interconnected parts. While he does not dwell on the point, he makes an exceptionally chilling observation about the way in which the human species is currently setting itself up for the second sleep by outsourcing both its reasoning processes and social interactions to Big Tech. This is one of the rare cases where the transparency of the novel’s message, something along the lines of think about what the technology was designed for before you embrace it, does not undermine the pleasure of the medium in which it is delivered. Though far from Harris’ best novel, The Second Sleep is his best science fiction to date and definitely worth reading.

Mad Max: Fury Road | review by Rafe McGregor

Heavy with metal, heavy with meaning

Douglas J. Ogurek’s excellent review of George Miller’s Furiosa: A Mad Max Saga (2024) reminded me that I’d been planning to review its sequel, Fury Road, ever since using it as an example in my short essay, The World Ecology of Climate Change Cinema, in 2023. So here it is, three (or eleven) years late…Mad Max: Fury Road (2015) is the fourth instalment in the Mad Max film franchise, following Mad Max (1979), Mad Max 2 (1981), and Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985). All four of the films are directed by George Miller (the third in partnership with George Ogilvie), set in Australia, and follow the eponymous protagonist, Max Rockatansky (played by Mel Gibson in the first three and Tom Hardy in the fourth).

Mad Max introduces Max as a police officer in Victoria’s Main Force Patrol in a dystopian future ‘A FEW YEARS FROM NOW’ and pits him against a particularly vicious motorcycle gang. Mad Max 2, which was released as The Road Warrior in the US (after Max’s nom de guerre), opens with a narrated introduction that establishes the context of the original as the collapse of global civilisation in the aftermath of a Third World War in which nuclear weaponry was deployed. The sequel is set in a post-apocalyptic Australia in which isolated communities and marauding gangs compete for the remaining fossil fuel, the production of which was destroyed in the war. Although the police no longer exist, Max fulfils a similar function in Mad Max 2 and Beyond Thunderdome, highway patrol replaced by cross-country driving as he protects the weak from death and slavery at the hands of the marauders.

Fury Road also opens with a voiceover, which concludes with Max stating: ‘Once, I was a cop, a road warrior searching for a righteous cause. As the world fell, each of us in our own way was broken. It was hard to know who was more crazy…me or everyone else.’ The voices interrupting Max suggest that the Earth can no longer support human life and that human life has become half-life, i.e. subject to radioactive decay, which is evinced by the majority of the characters in the narrative, who appear diseased, deformed, or disabled. The global ecological collapse is mirrored in Max as an individual, his psychological breakdown involving a paradoxical combination of obsession with those he failed to save and paranoia that everyone intends him harm. He is thus no longer the road warrior defending prey from predator, but a solitary scavenger haunted by failure.

Fury Road is 113 minutes from opening to closing credits and has the five-act structure characteristic of Hollywood blockbusters: exposition, complication, climax, crisis, and resolution. The exposition and resolution are brief (seventeen and seven minutes respectively) and the three acts that constitute the bulk of the film all involve an extended motor vehicle chase across the Wasteland, putting Fury Road very firmly in the action thriller genre. The exposition introduces Max, the despot Immortan Joe (played by Hugh Keays-Byrne), and Joe’s War Boys, the most capable of whom is Imperator Furiosa (played by Charlize Theron). The complication begins when Joe realises that Furiosa has rescued his Five Wives from sexual slavery in the Citadel and sets off in pursuit, with Max (who was captured earlier) being used as a living blood bag for Nux (played by Nicholas Hoult), an ailing War Boy. Furiosa and Max meet and flee together while remaining mutually hostile. The climax begins when the two join forces (48 minutes in to the film) and ends with Max convincing Furiosa that she must reverse the chase, charge the War Boys and their allies, and take control of the Citadel. The crisis is a prolonged battle between the two groups and the resolution depicts…well, I won’t spoil the ending just in case anyone reading this hasn’t seen it yet.

As such, the plot of Fury Road seems straightforward, moving from an inaugural condition in which Furiosa flees from the Citadel to her acceptance of Max as an ally to a retrospectively inevitable condition in which she and Max fight Joe and the War Boys. The superficial narrative is, however, enriched by an alternating focus on the two protagonists. The title of the film and its place in the Mad Max franchise suggest that it is primarily about Max, like the three prequels, and the exposition follows suit, concentrating on his capture, attempted escape, and enslavement as Nux’s blood bag. The complication changes direction, however, suggesting that the narrative’s exploration of women’s emancipation in the face of hegemonic masculinity is of much more significance. The clash between female liberation and male supremacism – represented by the conflict between Furiosa and the Wives on the one hand and Joe and the War Boys on the other – leaves little room for Max, who is neither female nor a War Boy. This exploration continues to take centre stage through the climax and it is not until the crisis, when Max leads a motley band of women against the combined forces of the Citadel, Gas Town, and the Bullet Farm, that his importance once again rivals Furiosa’s.

The narrative tension between Max and Furiosa, the question of whose story matters the most, is successfully resolved in the conclusion. Fury Road – or Furiosa’s road – is really about Furiosa and her struggle to free the oppressed in the Citadel. While Max’s role in the represented sequence of events is less significant than Furiosa’s, the role of those events in the franchise is crucial to Max in that it restores him to his former status of road warrior and, in so doing, facilitates a future continuation of the franchise. Screenwriter Nick Lathouris describes this development in thematic terms, as Fury Road being ‘about a man running away from his better self, and his better self catches up to him’. He’s right, of course, but only in part because if Furiosa is the first Mad Max film without Max (cameo appearance excepted), then Fury Road is the first Mad Max film where he is displaced as the protagonist. This is her story and that story is a perfect blend of high-speed action and abundant allegorical depth.****

Megalopolis | review by Rafe McGregor

Self-reflexive or self-indulgent?

Like many Anglophone readers of my generation, I suppose, I first came across ‘megalopolis’ in one of the many Judge Dredd comics published in 2000 AD magazine during the 1980s. The word was used to describe Dredd’s beat, ‘Mega-City One’, a gargantuan city covering the Eastern Seaboard of North America from Miami to Quebec City. I assumed both ‘megalopolis’ and ‘mega-city’ were science fiction inventions, but the Oxford English Dictionary taught me otherwise. ‘Megalopolis’ was used as far back as 1828, as a synonym for ‘metropolis’, and is now more commonly used to describe the contiguous built-up area formed when metropolises expand into one another (beginning with Los Angeles in the 1960s). ‘Megacity’ came much later, in 1967, and identifies a metropolis with more than 5 million residents (beginning with the Dallas-Fort Worth conurbation). In case anyone is interested, the biggest megacity in the world is currently Tokyo, with a population of approximately 39 million, and the biggest megacity in the US, New York, with 19 million. The setting of Francis Ford Coppola’s Megalopolis is ‘New Rome’, an alternative, future New York, and the title also alludes to megalon, a material or mineral with magical properties that can regenerate and restore both cities and the people that live in them. When the narrative opens, protagonist Cesar Catalina (played by Adam Driver) has recently been awarded a Nobel Prize for his creation of megalon.

I first heard about Megalopolis long before it was released in September 2024 – not because of any especially effective marketing strategy, but because of the conditions of its conception and production. Coppola began thinking about it in the late 1970s and began work on it in the early 1980s. The original idea seems to have been something like a cinematic Ulysses (1922), James Joyce’s monumental reimagining of Homer’s Odyssey in 1904 Dublin (which is, in my opinion, the greatest novel ever published and ever likely to be published). Joyce’s source material was the most celebrated story ever told in the Western canon (or the second most celebrated, if you prefer the Iliad, which most scholars don’t), but Coppola’s was a curious choice. He had already tried something similar with Apocalypse Now (1979), a magnificent reimagining of Joseph Conrad’s brilliant novella, Heart of Darkness (1899), in South-East Asia during the Vietnam War. Megalopolis would, in contrast to both Apocalypse Now and Ulysses, reimagine a historical event, the Catilinarian conspiracy in the Roman Republic of 63 BCE, in a faintly futuristic New York. The conspiracy was an attempted coup d’état by Catilina, aimed at seizing power from consuls Cicero and Hybrida, and never passed into popular culture. (Though I consider myself an amateur historian, I had to look it up). Perhaps more problematic, where the monstrous complexity of Ulysses is to at least some extent clarified by knowledge of the Odyssey, knowledge of the historical conspiracy actually complicates the film: the fictional Catalina is called ‘Cesar’, but (Julius) Caesar (who is absent from the film) played a historical part; the attempted insurrection is by Clodio Pulcher (played by Shia LaBoeuf) whereas Clodius Pulcher opposed the coup; Hybrida and Cato have no fictional counterparts and there are several major characters without historical counterparts. Notwithstanding, Megalopolis is a reimagining, of Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927), one of the first feature length science fiction films and one of the greatest films ever screened.

By the turn of the century, Coppola had decided he would fund his ‘passion’ (or perhaps ‘vanity’) project himself and began shooting cityscapes of New York. At the turn of the next decade, he started writing the script. Eight years later, on the day before his 80^th birthday, he announced that he’d finished the script, raised $120 million for a budget, and was ready to start interviewing actors. Filming began in 2022 and rumours of Coppola’s erratic behaviour soon spread, followed by allegations that he was under the influence of cannabis for lengthy periods, had sexually assaulted extras, and exceeded the budget by $16 million. It’s difficult to know how much of this to take seriously, but when I read about it, the whole enterprise reminded me of Frank Pavich’s Jodorowsky’s Dune (2013), a documentary about Alejandro Jodorowsky’s unsuccessful attempt to film Frank Herbert’s novel, Dune (1965), in the 1970s. Jodorowsky’s venture was hubristic to the point of insanity, ethically dubious, and doomed to failure, although the documentary acquired both critical acclaim and a cult following. Immediately after watching Megalopolis, I discovered that Coppola commissioned director Mike Figgis to make a documentary of the making of his film, which was released this month as Megadoc (2025). I wonder if Coppola’s motivation for the documentary was vanity or finances? Probably a bit of both.

Megalopolis begins with truly masterful exposition: we are shown almost everything we need to know about what will follow in the first 12 minutes (of 133 from opening to closing credits). One is simultaneously struck by the film’s idiosyncratic yet impressive style, a unique combination of filmed theatre, tasteful CGI, breathtaking cinematography, and beautiful mise-en-scène. Very quickly, we learn that Catalina has a utopian vision for New Rome at odds with Mayor Franklyn Cicero (played by Giancarlo Esposito) and the ability to stop time, which works on everyone except for Cicero’s wayward daughter, Julia (played by Nathalie Emmanuel). The plot is briskly set in motion when Catalina’s ambitious girlfriend, television presenter Wow Platinum (played by Aubrey Plaza), realises he is still in love with his dead wife and seduces his aged uncle, Hamilton Crassus III (played by Jon Voight), the wealthiest man in New Rome. Meanwhile, Crassus’ son, Pulcher, a spoiled wastrel jealous of the success of everyone around him, is desperate to make a name for himself. The ingredients are all simmering in the pot and our appetites whetted for making a meal of what follows. Shortly over half an hour in, the stakes are established as the question of whether or not Catalina will succeed in realising his architectural and humanitarian dream and all of Cicero, Wow, Pulcher, and Catalina’s self-destructive guilt about his wife’s death framed as antagonists or obstacles. Later, Wow Crassus and Pulcher will emerge as the villains of the piece. Later still, they join forces and become an apparently unstoppable dystopian threat that raises the stakes and heightens the tension in an altogether satisfying way. So, what goes wrong?

I noted that the reimagined history was confusing. The pseudo-Roman setting constitutes part of Coppola’s distinctive style, which is pleasing on both the eye and the ear, but otherwise pointless. The same is true of the very limited advanced technology that seems to have been responsible for the film being classed as science fiction. While megalon is the means by which Catalina intends to realise his vision, that means could just as easily have been an imagined but mundane mineral or a fictional but plausible construction method. Similarly, the sole purpose of Catalina’s ability to stop time as far as the plot is concerned is to show that there is a genuine connection between him and Julia once they fall in love. If I appear overly critical of the film’s retrofuturism, the categorisation as science fiction in particular brings with it certain expectations, for example that the film will to at least some extent be about advanced technology or about the psychological or political impact (or both) of that technology. Futuristic megalon is as incidental as Catalina’s superpower and, like the Roman retrospection, serves a stylistic function, providing Coppola with the opportunity to present some (once again) aesthetically pleasing CGI. To remain with the plot a little longer, the story is very much that of Catalina’s ambition and the film a vehicle for Driver as Catalina. In that part, he either lacks the charisma or does not bring enough of it to this performance to engage and enthral the audience for the quantity and quality of his screen time. I found myself much more interested in Julia and Wow, watching the narrative as a tug of war between two powerful women with Catalina relegated to the role of the rope. As a final criticism of the plot, once all is lost for Catalina and Julia, the tables are turned by Crassus in a scene that is absolutely ridiculous. I think it’s meant to be amusing rather than dramatic, a deliberate parody of itself, but it’s neither tense nor funny and falls flat.

If Megalopolis is not about the Catilinarian conspiracy and/or its contemporary counterparts or the impact of advanced technology such as megalon, then what is it about? I mentioned Metropolis earlier and while there are several references to Lang’s masterpiece (and no doubt some that I missed), Megalopolis does not share its themes. Aside from a few superficial mentions of immigrants being unwelcome and some gratuitous police brutality, Coppola fails to offer a perspective on social justice and does not represent class conflict or even class consciousness. With politics, technology, and justice stripped away, there isn’t very much left. A theme that emerges with admirable speed in the expert exposition is some elaboration of the relationship between time and creation, the latter in the sense of artistic creativity. As the narrative progresses, a link is established with first utopian desire and then romantic love, all bound up within a temporal horizon. Early in the second half of the film, Catalina tells Julia, ‘I can’t create anything without you next to me’ and one is inevitably reminded of Coppola’s wife of six decades, Eleanor, to whom the film is dedicated and who died shortly before its release. The tyranny of time, the inspiration and perspiration of creation, dreams of a better way of life, loving as a way of living…Megalopolis is a film about itself, about the trials and tribulations of its own creation. Coppola has fictionalised his creative process from conception to production, creating an almost entirely self-reflexive epic. And while that doesn’t make it a poor film, it does mean that it doesn’t have very much to say to its audience, not much more than we could find in Megadoc anyway.

The critical response was initially described as ‘polarised’, but reviews have been largely negative, the only notable exception being Sight and Sound magazine, who placed Megalopolis 17^th on their list of the best 50 films of 2024. To me, ‘polarised’ suggests something broad in scope and rich in depth, a work of boldness and ambition that will either flop or be recognised as a work of genius but could never be mediocre. I just don’t see this kind of greatness in it. There are plenty of highlights – Coppola’s style, the slick start, Emmanuel and Plaza’s performances – but more lowlights and Megalopolis is neither a magnum opus nor a nadir. The film has 45% on the Tomatometer, which is not unfair, though I do wonder if critics would have been more generous if they didn’t know that it was the product of 50 years of work. Unfortunately for Coppola, it was also a major commercial failure, only recouping £14.3 million at the box office and costing him $75.5 million by May 2025. At the time of writing, Coppola is 86, which suggests that this is his last film. While it’s a shame to see a career end this way, we should not forget that he is the genius who brought us all three Godfathers, Apocalypse Now, The Outsiders (1983), and Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992), among many others. I hope he doesn’t forget either.**

Jurassic World: Rebirth | review by Rafe McGregor

Jurassic World: Rebirth, by Gareth Edwards (Universal Pictures)

Three times three?

Jurassic World Rebirth is the seventh instalment in the Jurassic Park/World franchise that was launched by Steven Spielberg twenty-two years ago (excluding animated and short films). The previous instalments can be divided into two trilogies, with the second being a continuation of the first and the fictional chronology following the years in which each film was released (as far as I can tell). I shall recap the events of the franchise so far as Jurassic World: Rebirth plunges us directly into them and may well be the first of a third trilogy that is a further continuation (rather than remake, reboot, or retcon), though it is (of course) advertised as a “standalone” story.

The premise of Jurassic Park (1993) is that dinosaurs have been de-extincted by means of cloning and a theme park (“safari park” would be more accurate for UK readers) established on a fictional island called Isla Nublar, off the coast of Costa Rica. What could possibly go wrong? Lots… and everything that could go wrong does, in consequence of which the island is abandoned by its human visitors. In The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997) dinosaurs are discovered on the neighbouring island of Isla Sorna, which was where the original cloning was done before it was abandoned following a hurricane. (We now have two abandoned islands full of dinosaurs.) An ill-considered plan to transport a Tyrannosaurus rex to a zoo in San Diego goes wrong (who would’ve guessed) and after rampaging around the city it is returned to the island, which is declared a protected nature reserve. Jurassic Park III (2001) is essentially a rescue mission: ignoring national and international law (as they do), some rich folk undertake an illegal air safari of Isla Sorna, crash, and get bailed out by mum, dad, and some hired hands.

Jurassic World (2015) has exactly the same plot as Jurassic Park: a new multinational corporation acquires the rights to build a safari park on Isla Nublar, but have “improved” on the original by creating a new and very nasty dinosaur called an Indominus rex by means of transgenesis. What could possibly go wrong? Everything that did in the first film and this one ends in the same way, with humanity abandoning the same island for the second time. In between Jurassic World and Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018), a mercenary unit arrives on the island and succeeds in collecting an Indominus rex DNA sample (I wonder where this is going). The fifth film begins with the island about to be destroyed by a volcanic eruption and the protagonists are hired by the antagonist to launch a private rescue attempt, not realising that the relocated dinosaurs are going to be sold at an auction (those rich folk don’t get that rich by being nice). The rescued dinosaurs escape from their cages, enter the Northern California wilderness, and usher in a new era in which humans, animals, and dinosaurs are all going to have to coexist. Jurassic World: Dominion (2022) has a broadly similar plot to Jurassic Park III, being in essence a rescue mission, this time rescuing the first and only cloned human child from another multinational corporation and the dinosaurs it keeps in the Dolomite Mountains. As far as the fictional world of the franchise goes, little has changed as dinosaurs are still roaming, swimming and flying around the place like any other animal, fish, or bird.

I didn’t come to Jurassic World Rebirth with any great expectations. As I mentioned in my birthday wishes to Jaws’ (1975) Bruce, the sheer number of animals slaughtered onscreen in my lifetime is wearing me down and Scarlett Johanssen’s offscreen persona hasn’t exactly endeared itself to me (as Hollywood’s highest-grossing star my news feed is unfortunately full of her). I was also surprised to see that none of the previous casts were reappearing. The protagonists of the first trilogy were palaeontologist Alan Grant (played by Sam Neill) and mathematician Ian Malcolm (played by Jeff Goldblum), who appeared in five of the first six films between them. The second trilogy introduced the on-and-off couple Owen Grady (played by Chris Pratt), an ethologist (aka Velociraptor-wrangler), and Claire Dearing (played by Bryce Dallas Howard), a corporate slavedriver turned dinosaur activist. The protagonists of Jurassic World Rebirth are Zora Bennett (played by Johansson), a mercenary action hero, and… well, just Zora Bennett (because you don’t get to be Hollywood’s best-paid star by sharing the limelight).

Following a prelude where another mutated dinosaur (Distortus rex) wreaks havoc on another fictional island (Île Saint-Hubert, in the Atlantic Ocean) that (also) has to be abandoned, the narrative opens with the Earth’s climate threatening to return the dinosaurs to extinction, in consequence of which they have all migrated to the equatorial regions of the globe. For once, somebody has done something sensible and designated these no-travel areas. The antagonist, Martin Krebs (played by Rupert Friend) hires Bennett and her team to take DNA samples from the three largest living dinosaurs – Mosasaurus (sea), Titanosaurus (land) and Quetzalcoatlus (air) – for the purposes of making trillions of dollars from a cure for heart disease. The first indication that the film might be a pleasant surprise was that the DNA has to be retrieved from live dinosaurs and, indeed, the mercenary team very quickly loses all of its weapons, making most of the blood spilled in the story human. At the same time as Bennett, Krebs and their entourage begin their mission, an idiotic father of two, Reuben Delgado (played by Manuel Garcia-Rulfo, Netflix’s Lincoln Lawyer), is sailing his daughters and one of their boyfriends across the Atlantic in his yacht (an Atlantic swarming with literal sea monsters, I should add)… and everyone ends up on Île Saint-Hubert.

In addition to limiting the lizard slaughter, the three-part mission to acquire DNA over sea, land and air works very well, providing the narrative with a neat structure, broad scope, and organic signposting. The story also pays homage to the original Jurassic Park in at least two scenes, a Tyrannosaurus rex river chase and the final climatic battle at the abandoned laboratory complex, one of which works well and the other of which doesn’t. Segue to my only two criticisms, the opening and that climactic battle. In the former, the entire complex’s security system is destroyed by an empty Snickers wrapper. A complex that is not only containing dinosaurs, but creating nastier ones for human entertainment… I hope somebody somewhere got sued. The other let down is the Distortus rex itself. It inspires pity rather than fear and is so stupid and so slow that its survival on the island before the arrival of Bennett, Delgado and the rest seems highly unlikely. Having said that, while Jurassic Park: Rebirth may not reach the heights of the original film – perhaps even the first two films – it’s definitely as good or better than the rest. It’s also already well on the way to grossing a billion dollars so I guess we might just see Bennett back for two more instalments. ***

Borderlands and Otherworlds & Sphinxes and Obelisks | review by Rafe McGregor

Borderlands and Otherworlds by Mark Valentine, Tartarus Press, limited edition hardback, £45.00, 17 June 2025, ISBN 9781912586684

Sphinxes and Obelisks by Mark Valentine, Tartarus Press, paperback, £17.95, 12 November 2021, ISBN 9798764096322

I’ve been meaning to write a review of one of Mark Valentine’s collections of essays for some time now, but when the previous one was released, I was right in the middle of my own six-part essay, “Weird Fiction Old, New, and In-Between” (which you can find here, if you’re interested). That was less than a year ago and the next one is already available so I decided I’d better get on with it before I have to admit that he can write essay collections faster than I can read and review them. While ordering the recently released Borderlands and Otherworlds, I realised I’d somehow managed to miss Sphinxes and Obelisks and ordered it in paperback at the same time. This is review of both volumes.

Valentine is best known as a short story author, an editor and an essayist, but is also a biographer and poet. He has been publishing short stories and essays for more than four decades, although these have only relatively recently been collected in book form (In Violet Veils, in 1999, is – I think – the first) and more recently still (with – again, I think – The Collected Connoisseur, in 2010) made more widely available in paperback. Much, perhaps even most, of Valentine’s output has been published by Tartarus Press, a highly successful independent publisher famous for their limited edition sewn hardbacks (usually 350 and signed, if publication is not posthumous) with distinctive yellow dust wrappers and silk ribbon markers. If you are a collector as well as a reader, these are well worth the price at £45, with free postage and packaging in the UK. While I’m on the subject, Tartarus paperbacks have similar production values, but are probably overpriced at £17.95 (their Kindle editions appear to go for between £7 and £9; I prefer paper or audio books so I have no idea whether this is reasonable). Although I enjoyed Valentine’s The Collected Connoisseur, co-authored with his long term collaborator John Howard, a great deal, I have always preferred his work as an essayist and editor to his short fiction (my review of The Black Veil and Other Tales of Supernatural Sleuths, which he edited in 2008, was published in TQF24).

As an essayist, most websites list Valentine as specialising in book collecting, but his scope is much wider than that and includes undistinguished, forgotten and obscure authors from the first half of the twentieth century and before, many of whom were writers of speculative fiction. Borderlands and Otherworlds is his sixth collection of essays published by Tartarus, the first five of which are all available in paperback: Haunted By Books (2015), A Country Still All Mystery (2017), A Wild Tumultory Library (2019), Sphinxes and Obelisks (2021), and The Thunderstorm Collectors (2024). I’d be exaggerating if I said every essay in every collection is worth reading or that one or more of the collections shouldn’t be missed by speculative fiction fans, but I don’t regret the time or money spent on any of them. Rather than browsing their often diverse and always idiosyncratic tables of contents, I recommend watching this interview with Valentine, which gives a very good sense of the man, his interests, and even his prose style.

Sphinxes and Obelisks consists of 32 essays, 10 of which have been previously published, and a substantive introduction. It is worth noting, for both volumes, that the periodicals in which the essays previously appeared have often either ceased publishing or were privately issued, meaning that many readers are, like me, unlikely to have encountered them before and that they are simply no longer available anywhere else (both of which makes these collections all the more valuable). A summary of each essay would not only be tedious to compile, but almost certainly fail to do the collection justice and my intention is to expand Valentine’s readership, not reduce it, so I shall restrict commentary to those I enjoyed the most. The one on my shortlist that will probably appeal the most widely is “‘The Wonder Unlimited’: Hope Hodgson’s Tales of Captain Gault” (9 pages). William Hope Hodgson (1877–1918) is now recognised as one of the original pioneers of the weird as a distinct genre within speculative fiction more generally and is possibly best known for his serial occult detective, Thomas Carnacki (first collected in Carnacki, the Ghost-Finder in 1913), though he was also the author of The House on the Borderland (1908), The Night Land (1912), and various tales of the sea. Valentine discusses a group of the latter, which featured the serial character Captain Gault and were some of Hodgson’s most commercially successful work, while reflecting on the curious decline of the nautical tale as a genre of its own. For me, the other highlights of the collection are: “‘Change Here for the Dark Age’: Edward Shanks’ The People of the Ruins” (12 pages), about a precursor to Robin Hardy’s The Wicker Man (1973); “Sombre Gloom: The Macabre Thrillers of Riccardo Stephens” (8 pages), about an early mummy novel; “Cricket in Babylon”, about the (surprisingly many) varieties of what I’m going to call armchair cricket (6 pages); “Three Literary Mysteries of the 1930s” (6 pages), about three talented authors – Robert Stuart Christie, Petronella Elphinstone, and Seton Peacey – for whom almost no biographical information exists; and “Passages in the West” (8 pages), an autobiographical account of a book hunting expedition in the West Country.

Borderlands and Otherworlds also consists of 32 essays, 8 of which have been previously published. My favourites are the first and last. In the former, “Borderlands and Otherworlds: Some Supernatural Fiction of the Early 1920s” (17 pages), from which the collection takes its title, Valentine discusses the uncanny fiction of Edward Frederic (E.F.) Benson (1867–1940), Mary Amelia St Clair (May Sinclair, 1863-1946), Forrest Reid (1875–1947), Walter de la Mare (1873–1956), Lesley Garth (who was probably Lesley West Garth: born in 1900, married to William Ball in 1927, died in 1988), and George Oliver Onions (1873–1961). This is Valentine at his most typical and at his best, unearthing hidden – or, more accurately, forgotten – treasures. I am assuming, of course, that, like me, most TQF readers will be familiar with no more than half of these authors (Benson, De la Mare, and Onions in my case, although I have yet to read Benson). The last essay, “In the Attic” (5 pages) is, as the title suggests, an (all-too-brief) rummage through Valentine’s attic, which is full of all the forgotten treasures his regular readers will expect. My other highlights are: “At the House of Magic: Mary Butts’ Modernist Novels of the Occult” (6 pages), about Mary Franeis Butts (1890–1937), a collaborator of Aleister Crowley who was praised by T.S. Eliot; “Priestess of the Inner Light: The Magical Novels of Dion Fortune” (11 pages), about Violet Mary Firth (1890-1946), founder of the Fraternity of the Inner Light; “The Last, Lost Novel of Phyllis Paul” (4 pages), about a novelist who retains a cult following in spite of next to nothing being known about her life (1903–1973); and “The Serpent at Ashford Carbonell” (3 pages), about a mystery encountered during a book hunting expedition in the Welsh Marches.

So far, The Thunderstorm Collectors is my first choice of the six – I don’t recall a single essay where my attention drifted for even a moment – but Borderlands and Otherworlds is a close second. Regardless of precise preference, the same can be said of all the volumes: Valentine’s essays are simultaneously fun and fascinating, clever and chimerical, enlightening and exquisite.

Rollerball | review by Rafe McGregor

Rollerball, by Norman Jewison (20^th Century Fox) 

Another Golden Anniversary.

While Jaws turned fifty with much hype and fanfare last week, including here at Theaker’s Quarterly Fiction, it’s Rollerball’s turn today, albeit without the bells and whistles. I’m not sure how, but in spite of being both a science fiction and James Caan fan and familiarity with the premise, I’d never seen the film. I’ve always had a soft spot for Caan’s onscreen persona, an underrated, understated, effortless tough guy tough guy with a very distinctive style (he reminds me of John Wayne, though where Wayne is always in the Old West no matter what part he’s playing, Caan is in a big city somewhen in the nineteen seventies). Caan’s performances in all of The Godfather (1972), A Bridge Too Far (1977), Thief (1981), and Misery (1990) are inspired and Rollerball revolves entirely around him as Jonathan E(vans), the first and only superstar of the world’s most dangerous and popular game in 2018 (forty-three years in the future).

Rollerball’s screenplay was written by novelist William Harrison, who developed it from a short story called ‘Roller Ball Murder’, which was first published in Esquire in 1973. The world of 2018 is a utopia rather than dystopia, a planet of plenty where everyone literally has everything they want and nation states have been replaced by multi-national corporations that coexist in a state of avaricious harmony following a little-talked about and possibly even erased event known as the Corporate Wars. The competitiveness essential to unrestrained capitalism is, it seems, channelled into rollerball in an international tournament in which teams from various cities clash in a spectacle of bloody and vicarious violence for the players and audiences respectively. The actual game is a combination of inline speed skating and Basque pelota with a couple of motorbikes thrown in and the rules are changed regularly to make it more brutal. The top-ranked team is Houston, courtesy of Jonathan’s skill and resilience, and the inciting incident occurs when he is told to retire by the chief executive officer of the corporation running the game (if not the world), Mr Bartholomew (played by John Houseman), who is revealed as the narrative’s antagonist.

There are a couple of things that strike one immediately watching Rollerball fifty years later. First, the extent of the explicit critique of global capitalism with the gloves off. The capacity of the Hollywood film industry to make money from apparently resisting a system of which it is such an integral part never ceases to amaze me…and has been at work for a lot longer than I thought. Second, the science fiction trope of a utopia that turns out to be a dystopia as soon as the surface is scraped is becoming rather dated. It is much easier, for example, to imagine the worlds of Mad Max (1979), Blade Runner (1982), Strange Days (1995), and Children of Men (2006) as or in our future than a land of plenty where we all keep ourselves busy with shopping, pill-popping, and rollerball.

Jonathan doesn’t want to retire and one is never sure why. His lavish lifestyle would not change at all, his existential exploration of the conflict between comfort and freedom is somewhat limited, and he must be nearing the end of his shelf-life anyway. The only plausible explanation is an obsession with the adoration of the bloodthirsty crowds, but even this isn’t entirely convincing. The conundrum exposes one of the two flaws in the film, which may have accounted for a critical reception that did not match its commercial success and has left it with a fair 57% on Rotten Tomatoes: Jonathan is simply not a particularly sympathetic character. (This is not one of Caan’s best performances.) The second is just as damaging. Given that the genre of the film is some mix of action, thriller, sports, etc., the representation of rollerball is really poor. The cinematography and stunts fail to convey the speed and danger of the game, which ends up looking quite camp with its players modelling their rollerskates, leather pants, and almost invisible cosmetic scars. I’ve watched ice hockey games on television that look more dangerous and there isn’t a single missing tooth in Rollerball. The film isn’t terrible, but it’s not great entertainment either.

Talking of ‘terrible’… Rollerball was remade by John McTiernan and released in 2002. Coming from the director of Predator (1987), Die Hard (1988), The Hunt for Red October (1990), The Thomas Crown Affair (1999), and Basic (2003), I was surprised to see the film’s impressive 3% on the Tomatometer. As if that isn’t bad enough, the Los Angeles Times also claimed it was one of the biggest commercial failures of all time. The remake starred Chris Klein, LL Cool Jay, and Jean Reno, all of whose performances I usually enjoy, but Klein was fresh from his role as a lacrosse player in American Pie (1999) and American Pie 2 (2001) so that might be the first clue to avoid it. I’m glad I watched the first Rollerball, but I won’t be wasting seventy-eight minutes of my life on the second.**

Octavia Butler's Parable of the Trickster – Rafe McGregor

Octavia Butler’s Parable of the Sower was intended to be part of a series of six novels, which was planned as Parable of the Talents, Parable of the Trickster, Parable of the Teacher, Parable of Chaos, and Parable of Clay, but only the first two were ever published, in 1993 and 1998 respectively. The first three Parables take their titles from the three biblical parables of the same names, in the Books of Luke and Matthew, and each of the published novels concludes with a quote from the relevant Book. In The Parable of the Sower, the sower is symbolic of God and the seed of God’s message. Lauren Oya Olamina, the protagonist of the first two Parables, creates a new religion called Earthseed and founds the first Earthseed community in Humboldt County, California. Following the discovery of extrasolar planets that sustain life in 2025, the ultimate aim of Earthseed is to ‘take root among the stars’. The Parables are referred to as Butler’s Earthseed books in order to distinguish them from her other two series and her standalone novels. In The Parable of the Talents, the monetary talents (a unit of weight used as currency) are symbolic of personal talents (God-given abilities and aptitudes), both of which are granted for the purpose of serving their respective masters. Olamina dedicates her life to the service of Earthseed, which becomes one of the most popular religions in the Americas, and launches the first starship in 2090, the final year of her life. In The Parable of the Trickster, which is better known as The Parable of the Dishonest Steward (or the Shrewd Manager), the steward’s alternating incompetence and prowess is symbolic of the inability of human beings to serve both God and money. The Earthseed settlers on the planet Bow (an abbreviation of 'Rainbow') cannot both cling to the form of life they had on Earth and thrive in the extrasolar colony.

Butler began work on Parable of the Trickster in 1989, made numerous false starts from 1999 to 2004, and continued compiling notes and drafts until her death, early in 2006. The premises, outlines, and fragments have been available in The Huntington’s Octavia E. Butler Papers archive since 2013 and I was lucky enough to gain access to these while researching Literary Theory and Criminology in 2022. There are several aspects of Butler’s premises, outlines, and fragments that remain fairly consistent, most of which concern the protagonist and setting of the novel. There is less consistently about the structure of the narrative, but two plotlines can be discerned as well as a third that is only sketched. Butler seemed certain that Trickster would be written in the first person from the perspective of the protagonist and narrator, who would be named either Imara Hope Lucas, Imara Wright Drew, or Imara Dove Holly. Imara is an African American woman who was adopted by Olamina during her teens (between 13 and 17) and is aged between 35 and 45 when the story begins. Imara is an Earthseed therapist in some versions and a sharer (suffering from the organic delusional disorder called hyper-empathy, like Olamina) in others. Some time between 2090 and 2095 she leaves Earth in an Earthseed Instar with between 4700 and 5339 colonists to realise the Earthseed destiny. Given the dates this appears to be the starship fleet led by the Christopher Columbus described at the end of Talents.

After a flight of between 107 and 137 years, during which Imara is placed in DiaPause, a method of suspended animation, she arrives on Bow, which is 11.8 light years away from Earth. Bow can support human life, with plenty of oxygen and water. The planet has no moon, is cooler than Earth, and has days that are just under 20 hours long. The ships have arrived near the equator, where it is warm, wet, and windy and the plan is to build the colony in a river valley. In most versions, Bow has no fauna beyond earthworms and microorganisms and flora that is limited to a slimy moss-like substance. The settlers immediately miss the beauty of Earth, a feeling that is exacerbated by the fact that the colours on Bow are all muted and the atmosphere smelly, varying from being merely unpleasant to smelling like vomit. Two of the three plotlines begin five years after the arrival of the humans, by which time there is a fully functioning settlement and society. The colony is divided into 50 to 60 housing groups of 30 to 100 people each, built in a protective semicircle around their crops and water supply. Each housing group has a communal gathering house at its centre, but the individual houses are inhabited by nuclear families. The aim is to develop the colony by having a new housing group split off from the parental house once a group reaches 100 inhabitants. The minimal governmental functions, including leadership by an Earthseed shaper (clergyperson) and record-keeping by an archivist, are based in a gathering hall, which serves as the community centre. The colony is multinational and multi-ethnic, with each of the colonists being selected for their skill set. By the fifth year, the colony is fully established, with the colonists living off the land. At some time in the future, after Trickster, it will break up, with some housing groups choosing to merge into a town, others developing around industrialised farms, and others adopting pre-industrial gatherer or monastic lifestyles. Once one moves beyond the protagonist and the setting, there is little consistency in the Trickster archive. Three plotlines nonetheless emerge from the notes and fragments, two of which are fairly substantial. I shall consolidate the notes and fragments to produce an account that sacrifices accuracy for coherence.

In the first, which includes a fragment of 47 pages, Imara Lucas Hope is the expedition’s archivist. She was raped by her mother’s partner at the age of 13, became pregnant with his child, was abandoned by the couple, and tried to commit suicide in an orphanage. The unborn baby died, but she survived to be adopted by Olamina. Imara and Olamina became very close as the years progressed and she was appointed ‘Guardian of the Ashes of Lauren Oya Olamina’, which are to be scattered on Bow in an Earthseed funeral on Day 2000 of the arrival of humanity. The narrative begins on that day, in medias res as the community leader, shaper Eric Parnell, appears to lose his mind when he starts shouting nonsense in his opening speech. Imara, waiting to play her part in the ceremony, has a hallucination of the thousands of colonists in the hall panicking, stampeding, and injuring one another in a race to exit. Eric is taken to the clinic and Imara realises that he, she, and the community’s dentist, Luis Huerta, have all had hallucinations. They all seek physical explanations, but none can be found and they have concerns about their sanity, worrying that they may not be able to cope with prolonged exposure to the conditions on Bow (which can support them physically, but perhaps not psychologically). Claire Lawless, Eric’s deputy, and Muir Parnell, Eric’s wife, have also been hallucinating and there is some tension between Claire and Imara. In the following chapter, Imara wakes up the next morning feeling fine, but immediately hallucinates a conversation with Olamina. Seven more people are admitted to the clinic with hallucinations during the day and Imara realises that the community’s psychiatrist, Ross Kuusi, is trying to conceal the fact that he is also hallucinating. Concerns about prolonged exposure to the planet are exacerbated when Imara works out that everyone who has been hallucinating is either part of the last transit crew or the first ground crew, the only people who were awake in the first 100 days of arrival.

In the second plotline, which has more dedicated fragments but of shorter lengths than the first, Imara Wright Drew is the expedition’s psychiatrist. The narrative opens with her awakening from her ‘coffin-sized DiaPause tank’ and gradually recovering her senses and motor control. Imara is part of the first ground crew and the reports from those who have explored Bow are negative: while it can clearly sustain human life everyone has found being on it either disconcerting, unpleasant, or both. Imara finds out that after she was put in her DiaPause tank, her husband, Powell Davidson, changed his mind and decided not to join the Earthseed expedition. She is given a letter from him apologising for his decision and realises that he is now long dead. In the following chapter, Imara begins to regain her strength and other colonists are introduced: Aaron Wen, a shaper; Nissa Swan, an anthropologist; Julian Gamero, a farmer; and others. Imara begins helping other people wake from DiaPause. Three days later, Nissa goes missing. She had previously explored Bow and claimed to have seen an indigenous species. A search party is sent out for her. They find her trail, track her, and quickly locate her corpse at the bottom of a canyon. Imara is asked to attend the scene. As soon as she goes outside she has an hallucination and it will subsequently be suggested that the hallucinations were responsible for both Nissa’s sighting of an indigenous species and her death by falling. Imara starts thinking about adapting to rather than curing the hallucinations, at least in the short term, and this is both the resolution to the plot and the core theme of the narrative.

In the third plotline, which is sketched in the barest detail, Imara Dove Holly is the expedition’s law enforcement agent, the Sheriff of Bow, selected personally by Olamina before the expedition departed. Imara is married to a farmer, Aurio Cruz. When she does not have law enforcement duties to fulfil, she assists both her husband and the colony’s archivist. Five years after the colonist’s arrival someone sets a fire outside the largest greenhouse of the Rose Housing Group, causing considerable damage. When Imara begins her investigation, she has her first hallucination and subsequently learns that many people are hallucinating frequently. There is a second fire, in consequence of which one of the colonists is killed. The ubiquity of the hallucinations make the case almost impossible to solve, but Imara eventually finds a way to make use of the hallucinations to detect the arsonist while the medical professions continue to seek a cure. Strangely, given the amount of relative detail provided, there is no suggestion of a central theme in the archivist’s plot. The strongest suggestion is in the psychiatrist plot, in which the solution to the problem of the hallucinations is not to ‘cure’ or overcome them, but to accept them as one of the features of life on Bow in order to minimise their impact on everyday life. The sheriff’s plot goes even further, suggesting that the hallucinations are not just a phenomenon that human beings can live with, but a phenomenon that can actually be exploited for gains of some sort. There is an allusion to this idea in the archivist’s plot, in which the narrator reflects that ‘two of the most important tenets of Earthseed were foresight and adaptability’ before Parnell addresses the community about their adaptation to life on Bow. In the context of the other plotlines and extracts, the double emphasis on adaptation immediately prior to Parnell’s very public hallucination may well be an instance of foreshadowing the resolution to come: adaptation rather than cure.

The theme of adaptation is developed in Butler’s notes by means of two concepts or metaphors, the xenograft and the trickster. A xenograft is an interspecies transplant and she described the story as one in which people xenograft humanity onto a new world whose immune system tries to expel them. The resistance of Bow to humanity is the sense in which the planet itself is the trickster of the title and parable and the hallucinations suffered by those with prolonged exposure to the planet are the most dangerous means by which it tries to expel them. Butler was explicit as to the planet’s trickery, ‘a world that seems to be one thing (dull, drab, and harmless) and is something else entirely.’ Her planned conclusion to the novel was that the colonists would be forced to make a choice, ‘to try to hold on to what they were as normal human beings on Earth or to allow the change they have both fought and adapted to for years to continue.’ She also wrote that in the end Bow ‘will adopt them and they will be of it.’ As a sequel to both Sower and Talents, this theme is completely consistent consistent with the Earthseed principle of ‘God is change’ and Olamina’s insistence on employing it as a guide to one’s life. To return to the biblical parable, the human beings on Bow cannot retain their human form of life on Bow, but must develop and establish a new form of life that is adapted to the planet on which they have chosen to live. This also provides a neat juxtaposition to the dark note at the end of Talents, in which the starship is revealed to have been named the Christopher Columbus, predicting that the form of life in the extraterrestrial colony will be as unjust and unsustainable as it was in terrestrial colonies. As such, it seems as if Trickster was intended to proceed through conflict and tragedy to a conclusion with life-affirming meaning. As Butler writes: ‘The community will suffer greatly at the hands of the hallucinations, but eventually pull through.’

Butler had little more than premises for the second half of the series. The colony would divide into two in Parable of the Teacher, with one group determined to adapt to the planet and the other determined to conquer it. Parable of Chaos would see the rise of ‘an absolute Stalinesque figure’ whose every word and whim is passed into law by his sycophantic followers. Finally, in Parable of Clay, humanity would not only have adapted to life on the new planet, but actually evolved into a new species or subspecies. The themes the four novels set on Bow would explore would be the roles of creativity and repression in adaptation to the environment and new ways of being human that revealed marginalised aspects of humanity. Butler suffered from high blood pressure in her final years and died following a fall while walking in Lake Forest Park, in Seattle, at the age of 58. She became the first Black woman to be a published science fiction writer when Doubleday released her first novel, Patternmaster, in 1976. Along with Samuel R. Delany, she is recognised as inaugurating Afrofuturism as a literary movement. As far as the continued relevance of her work, Butler’s Earthseed novels are only matched by Alfonso Cuarón’s 2006 feature film, Children of Men, and the eight seasons of HBO’s Game of Thrones, released from 2011 to 2019.